Factors that influence flocking dynamics in cluster and V-formation species

Flocking is a highly conserved trait across numerous bird species. These social assemblages are thought to provide numerous group-living benefits, such as predator avoidance and enhanced navigation. There are two primary flock formations for birds, each presenting a different aerodynamic environment. V-formation flocking provides an aerodynamic advantage to following birds, reducing the cost of flight, while cluster flocking results instead in additional energetic costs. Any benefits or consequences of flocking will not be equally distributed throughout the flock, and these differences may have important impacts on the overall energy expenditure and fitness of an individual. However, while it is assumed that morphology, life history, and evolutionary background will influence the flocking dynamics and individual energy expenditure within and across flock formations, yet relatively little is known about the specific effects of these aforementioned aspects of an organism's biology. This thesis addresses this gap in knowledge by utilizing two distinct data collection techniques to examine flocking flight in three species with unique social organizations, breeding behaviours, morphologies, flight styles, and diverse evolutionary backgrounds. Domesticated homing pigeons (Columba livia) were studied with attached GPS and accelerometers to examine the effect of ground-based social relationships on flock composition and energetics during homing flights. Flight paths of ring-necked parakeets (Psittacula krameri) and pink-footed geese (Anser brachyrhynchus) were tracked in 3D via a camera array system in order to examine how differences in reproductive strategy, morphology, and flight style impact flocking. These results were synthesized with past research in order to gain a broader understanding of the influence of morphology, life history, and evolutionary background on flocking dynamics and energy expenditure of both cluster and V-formation flocking species.