Climate variability and aridity modulate the role of leaf shelters for arthropods: a global experiment

Gustavo Q. Romero; Thiago Gonçalves-Souza; Tomas Roslin; Robert J Marquis; Nicholas A.C. Marino; Vojtech Novotny; Tatiana Cornelissen; Jerome Orivel; Shen Sui; Gustavo Aires; Reuber Antoniazzi; Wesley Dáttilo; Crasso P  B Breviglieri; Annika Busse; Heloise Gibb; Thiago J. Izzo; Tomas Kadlec; Victoria Kemp; Monica Kersch-Becker; Michal Knapp; Pavel Kratina; Rebecca Luke; Stefan Majnarić; Robin Maritz; Paulo Mateus Martins; Esayas Mendesil; Jaroslav Michalko; Anna Mrazova; Samuel Novais; Cássio C. Pereira; Mirela S. Perić; Jana S. Petermann; Sérvio P. Ribeiro; Katerina Sam; M. Kurtis Trzcinski; Camila Vieira; Natalie Westwood; Maria L. Bernaschini; Valentina Carvajal; Ezequiel González; Mariana Jausoro; Stanis Kaensin; Fabiola Ospina; E. Jacob Cristóbal-Pérez; Mauricio Quesada; Pierre Rogy; Diane S Srivastava; Scarlett Szpryngiel; Ayco J.M. Tack; Tiit Teder; Martin Videla; Mari Liis Viljur; Julia Koricheva

doi:10.1111/gcb.16150

Climate variability and aridity modulate the role of leaf shelters for arthropods: a global experiment

Gustavo Q. Romero, Thiago Gonçalves-Souza, Tomas Roslin, Robert J Marquis, Nicholas A.C. Marino, Vojtech Novotny, Tatiana Cornelissen, Jerome Orivel, Shen Sui, Gustavo Aires, Reuber Antoniazzi, Wesley Dáttilo, Crasso P B Breviglieri, Annika Busse, Heloise Gibb, Thiago J. Izzo, Tomas Kadlec, Victoria Kemp, Monica Kersch-Becker, Michal KnappPavel Kratina, Rebecca Luke, Stefan Majnarić, Robin Maritz, Paulo Mateus Martins, Esayas Mendesil, Jaroslav Michalko, Anna Mrazova, Samuel Novais, Cássio C. Pereira, Mirela S. Perić, Jana S. Petermann, Sérvio P. Ribeiro, Katerina Sam, M. Kurtis Trzcinski, Camila Vieira, Natalie Westwood, Maria L. Bernaschini, Valentina Carvajal, Ezequiel González, Mariana Jausoro, Stanis Kaensin, Fabiola Ospina, E. Jacob Cristóbal-Pérez, Mauricio Quesada, Pierre Rogy, Diane S Srivastava, Scarlett Szpryngiel, Ayco J.M. Tack, Tiit Teder, Martin Videla, Mari Liis Viljur, Julia Koricheva

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Original language	English
Pages (from-to)	3694-3710
Number of pages	17
Journal	Global Change Biology
Volume	28
Issue number	11
Early online date	4 Mar 2022
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16150
Publication status	Published - Jun 2022

Keywords

climate change
ecosystem engineering
facilitation
insect decline
leaf shelter
microclimatic refuge
predators

UN SDGs

This output contributes to the following UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Access to Document

10.1111/gcb.16150

Accepted ManuscriptAccepted author manuscript, 761 KB

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Romero, G. Q., Gonçalves-Souza, T., Roslin, T., Marquis, RJ., Marino, N. A. C., Novotny, V., Cornelissen, T., Orivel, J., Sui, S., Aires, G., Antoniazzi, R., Dáttilo, W., Breviglieri, CP. B., Busse, A., Gibb, H., Izzo, T. J., Kadlec, T., Kemp, V., Kersch-Becker, M., ... Koricheva, J. (2022). Climate variability and aridity modulate the role of leaf shelters for arthropods: a global experiment. Global Change Biology, 28(11), 3694-3710. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16150

@article{b933fcbe547f446c8ab8720e484e9cb2,

title = "Climate variability and aridity modulate the role of leaf shelters for arthropods: a global experiment",

keywords = "climate change, ecosystem engineering, facilitation, insect decline, leaf shelter, microclimatic refuge, predators",

author = "Romero, {Gustavo Q.} and Thiago Gon{\c c}alves-Souza and Tomas Roslin and Robert J Marquis and Marino, {Nicholas A.C.} and Vojtech Novotny and Tatiana Cornelissen and Jerome Orivel and Shen Sui and Gustavo Aires and Reuber Antoniazzi and Wesley D{\'a}ttilo and Breviglieri, {Crasso P B} and Annika Busse and Heloise Gibb and Izzo, {Thiago J.} and Tomas Kadlec and Victoria Kemp and Monica Kersch-Becker and Michal Knapp and Pavel Kratina and Rebecca Luke and Stefan Majnari{\'c} and Robin Maritz and {Mateus Martins}, Paulo and Esayas Mendesil and Jaroslav Michalko and Anna Mrazova and Samuel Novais and Pereira, {C{\'a}ssio C.} and Peri{\'c}, {Mirela S.} and Petermann, {Jana S.} and Ribeiro, {S{\'e}rvio P.} and Katerina Sam and Trzcinski, {M. Kurtis} and Camila Vieira and Natalie Westwood and Bernaschini, {Maria L.} and Valentina Carvajal and Ezequiel Gonz{\'a}lez and Mariana Jausoro and Stanis Kaensin and Fabiola Ospina and Crist{\'o}bal-P{\'e}rez, {E. Jacob} and Mauricio Quesada and Pierre Rogy and Diane S Srivastava and Scarlett Szpryngiel and Tack, {Ayco J.M.} and Tiit Teder and Martin Videla and Viljur, {Mari Liis} and Julia Koricheva",

note = "Funding Information: We acknowledge financial support for research provided by the S?o Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP: grants 2017/09052-4, 2018/12225-0, and 2019/08474-8) and CNPq-Brazil through research grants to GQR. GQR and PK gratefully acknowledge funding from the Royal Society, Newton Advanced Fellowship (grant no. NAF/R2/180791). TR was supported by the Academy of Finland (grant 322266); by a senior career support grant from the Vice Chancellor of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union?s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 856506; ERC-synergy project LIFEPLAN); and by a grant from the Jane and Aatos Erkko Foundation. RJM thanks the Missouri Department of Natural Resources for access to Cuivre River State Park, Zhaid Khaja for help in the field, and the Students and Teachers as Research Scientists (STARS) program for financial support. NACM acknowledges CAPES for a post-doctoral research grant (PNPD/CAPES #2013/0877), VN acknowledges the Czech Science Foundation (grant 19-28126X). TC acknowledges CNPq (307210/2016-2) and CAPES. JO acknowledges access to the Paracou research station in French Guiana, which is supported by CIRAD (https://paracou.cirad.fr/) and financial support provided by an Investissement d?Avenir grant of the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (CEBA, ANR-10-LABX-25-01) and by the PO-FEDER 2014-2020, R?gion Guyane (BiNG, GY0007194). WD and RA are grateful to Rosamond Coates and all the staff of the Estaci?n de Biolog?a Tropical Los Tuxtlas (Universidad Nacional Aut?noma de M?xico), besides the staff of the Santuario del Bosque de Niebla and Centro de Investigaciones costeras La Mancha (Instituto de Ecolog?a A.C.) who have made the fieldwork possible. HG was supported by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT130100821). TJI is supported by CNPQ (grants 309552/2018-4). TK was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). VK acknowledges funding from grant NE/K016148/1 Natural Environment Research Council. MK was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). RM acknowledges Tswalu Kalahari for permission to conduct fieldwork and Bryan Maritz and Graham Alexander for help in the field. PMM acknowledges the Dunedin Botanic Garden's administration for allowing data collection, and thank Penelope Jacks and Esther Dale for their valuable support during different stages of the fieldwork. EM acknowledges Tamiru Shimales. JM was supported by the Slovak national grant VEGA2/0100/18. AM acknowledges the GAJU n. 04-048/2019/P grant. CCP acknowledges CAPES (financial code 001). MSP and SM thank the Nature Park Medvednica and Ministry of Environment and Energy of the Republic of Croatia for allowing access to the Croatian study sites. KS thanks to ERC 805189. SPR thanks CNPq (306572/2019-2). MKT acknowledges Danielle Courcelles for assistance in field work. CV was supported by Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior (CAPES) Proc. 88882.314749/2019-01. EG was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). MQ was supported by grants from Universidad Nacional Aut?noma de M?xico (PAPIIT IV200418), SADER-CONACYT 291333, CONACYT-UNAM to LANASE (2019-LN299033); MQ thanks Gumersindo Sanchez for help in the field. TT was supported by the Estonian Research Council (grant no. PRG741), and by the Internal Grant Agency of the Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). M-LV was supported by the Estonian Research Council (grant no. PRG741). Funding Information: We acknowledge financial support for research provided by the S{\~a}o Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP: grants 2017/09052‐4, 2018/12225‐0, and 2019/08474‐8) and CNPq‐Brazil through research grants to GQR. GQR and PK gratefully acknowledge funding from the Royal Society, Newton Advanced Fellowship (grant no. NAF/R2/180791). TR was supported by the Academy of Finland (grant 322266); by a senior career support grant from the Vice Chancellor of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union{\textquoteright}s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 856506; ERC‐synergy project LIFEPLAN); and by a grant from the Jane and Aatos Erkko Foundation. RJM thanks the Missouri Department of Natural Resources for access to Cuivre River State Park, Zhaid Khaja for help in the field, and the Students and Teachers as Research Scientists (STARS) program for financial support. NACM acknowledges CAPES for a post‐doctoral research grant (PNPD/CAPES #2013/0877), VN acknowledges the Czech Science Foundation (grant 19‐28126X). TC acknowledges CNPq (307210/2016‐2) and CAPES. JO acknowledges access to the Paracou research station in French Guiana, which is supported by CIRAD ( https://paracou.cirad.fr/ ) and financial support provided by an Investissement d{\textquoteright}Avenir grant of the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (CEBA, ANR‐10‐LABX‐25‐01) and by the PO‐FEDER 2014‐2020, R{\'e}gion Guyane (BiNG, GY0007194). WD and RA are grateful to Rosamond Coates and all the staff of the Estaci{\'o}n de Biolog{\'i}a Tropical Los Tuxtlas (Universidad Nacional Aut{\'o}noma de M{\'e}xico), besides the staff of the Santuario del Bosque de Niebla and Centro de Investigaciones costeras La Mancha (Instituto de Ecolog{\'i}a A.C.) who have made the fieldwork possible. HG was supported by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT130100821). TJI is supported by CNPQ (grants 309552/2018‐4). TK was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). VK acknowledges funding from grant NE/K016148/1 Natural Environment Research Council. MK was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). RM acknowledges Tswalu Kalahari for permission to conduct fieldwork and Bryan Maritz and Graham Alexander for help in the field. PMM acknowledges the Dunedin Botanic Garden's administration for allowing data collection, and thank Penelope Jacks and Esther Dale for their valuable support during different stages of the fieldwork. EM acknowledges Tamiru Shimales. JM was supported by the Slovak national grant VEGA2/0100/18. AM acknowledges the GAJU n. 04‐048/2019/P grant. CCP acknowledges CAPES (financial code 001). MSP and SM thank the Nature Park Medvednica and Ministry of Environment and Energy of the Republic of Croatia for allowing access to the Croatian study sites. KS thanks to ERC 805189. SPR thanks CNPq (306572/2019‐2). MKT acknowledges Danielle Courcelles for assistance in field work. CV was supported by Coordena{\c c}{\~a}o de Aperfei{\c c}oamento de Pessoal de N{\'i}vel Superior (CAPES) Proc. 88882.314749/2019‐01. EG was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). MQ was supported by grants from Universidad Nacional Aut{\'o}noma de M{\'e}xico (PAPIIT IV200418), SADER‐CONACYT 291333, CONACYT‐UNAM to LANASE (2019‐LN299033); MQ thanks Gumersindo Sanchez for help in the field. TT was supported by the Estonian Research Council (grant no. PRG741), and by the Internal Grant Agency of the Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). M‐LV was supported by the Estonian Research Council (grant no. PRG741). Publisher Copyright: {\textcopyright} 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.",

year = "2022",

month = jun,

doi = "10.1111/gcb.16150",

language = "English",

volume = "28",

pages = "3694--3710",

journal = "Global Change Biology",

issn = "1354-1013",

publisher = "Wiley-Blackwell",

number = "11",

}

Romero, GQ, Gonçalves-Souza, T, Roslin, T, Marquis, RJ, Marino, NAC, Novotny, V, Cornelissen, T, Orivel, J, Sui, S, Aires, G, Antoniazzi, R, Dáttilo, W, Breviglieri, CPB, Busse, A, Gibb, H, Izzo, TJ, Kadlec, T, Kemp, V, Kersch-Becker, M, Knapp, M, Kratina, P, Luke, R, Majnarić, S, Maritz, R, Mateus Martins, P, Mendesil, E, Michalko, J, Mrazova, A, Novais, S, Pereira, CC, Perić, MS, Petermann, JS, Ribeiro, SP, Sam, K, Trzcinski, MK, Vieira, C, Westwood, N, Bernaschini, ML, Carvajal, V, González, E, Jausoro, M, Kaensin, S, Ospina, F, Cristóbal-Pérez, EJ, Quesada, M, Rogy, P, Srivastava, DS, Szpryngiel, S, Tack, AJM, Teder, T, Videla, M, Viljur, ML & Koricheva, J 2022, 'Climate variability and aridity modulate the role of leaf shelters for arthropods: a global experiment', Global Change Biology, vol. 28, no. 11, pp. 3694-3710. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16150

TY - JOUR

T1 - Climate variability and aridity modulate the role of leaf shelters for arthropods

T2 - a global experiment

AU - Romero, Gustavo Q.

AU - Gonçalves-Souza, Thiago

AU - Roslin, Tomas

AU - Marquis, Robert J

AU - Marino, Nicholas A.C.

AU - Novotny, Vojtech

AU - Cornelissen, Tatiana

AU - Orivel, Jerome

AU - Sui, Shen

AU - Aires, Gustavo

AU - Antoniazzi, Reuber

AU - Dáttilo, Wesley

AU - Breviglieri, Crasso P B

AU - Busse, Annika

AU - Gibb, Heloise

AU - Izzo, Thiago J.

AU - Kadlec, Tomas

AU - Kemp, Victoria

AU - Kersch-Becker, Monica

AU - Knapp, Michal

AU - Kratina, Pavel

AU - Luke, Rebecca

AU - Majnarić, Stefan

AU - Maritz, Robin

AU - Mateus Martins, Paulo

AU - Mendesil, Esayas

AU - Michalko, Jaroslav

AU - Mrazova, Anna

AU - Novais, Samuel

AU - Pereira, Cássio C.

AU - Perić, Mirela S.

AU - Petermann, Jana S.

AU - Ribeiro, Sérvio P.

AU - Sam, Katerina

AU - Trzcinski, M. Kurtis

AU - Vieira, Camila

AU - Westwood, Natalie

AU - Bernaschini, Maria L.

AU - Carvajal, Valentina

AU - González, Ezequiel

AU - Jausoro, Mariana

AU - Kaensin, Stanis

AU - Ospina, Fabiola

AU - Cristóbal-Pérez, E. Jacob

AU - Quesada, Mauricio

AU - Rogy, Pierre

AU - Srivastava, Diane S

AU - Szpryngiel, Scarlett

AU - Tack, Ayco J.M.

AU - Teder, Tiit

AU - Videla, Martin

AU - Viljur, Mari Liis

AU - Koricheva, Julia

N1 - Funding Information: We acknowledge financial support for research provided by the S?o Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP: grants 2017/09052-4, 2018/12225-0, and 2019/08474-8) and CNPq-Brazil through research grants to GQR. GQR and PK gratefully acknowledge funding from the Royal Society, Newton Advanced Fellowship (grant no. NAF/R2/180791). TR was supported by the Academy of Finland (grant 322266); by a senior career support grant from the Vice Chancellor of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union?s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 856506; ERC-synergy project LIFEPLAN); and by a grant from the Jane and Aatos Erkko Foundation. RJM thanks the Missouri Department of Natural Resources for access to Cuivre River State Park, Zhaid Khaja for help in the field, and the Students and Teachers as Research Scientists (STARS) program for financial support. NACM acknowledges CAPES for a post-doctoral research grant (PNPD/CAPES #2013/0877), VN acknowledges the Czech Science Foundation (grant 19-28126X). TC acknowledges CNPq (307210/2016-2) and CAPES. JO acknowledges access to the Paracou research station in French Guiana, which is supported by CIRAD (https://paracou.cirad.fr/) and financial support provided by an Investissement d?Avenir grant of the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (CEBA, ANR-10-LABX-25-01) and by the PO-FEDER 2014-2020, R?gion Guyane (BiNG, GY0007194). WD and RA are grateful to Rosamond Coates and all the staff of the Estaci?n de Biolog?a Tropical Los Tuxtlas (Universidad Nacional Aut?noma de M?xico), besides the staff of the Santuario del Bosque de Niebla and Centro de Investigaciones costeras La Mancha (Instituto de Ecolog?a A.C.) who have made the fieldwork possible. HG was supported by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT130100821). TJI is supported by CNPQ (grants 309552/2018-4). TK was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). VK acknowledges funding from grant NE/K016148/1 Natural Environment Research Council. MK was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). RM acknowledges Tswalu Kalahari for permission to conduct fieldwork and Bryan Maritz and Graham Alexander for help in the field. PMM acknowledges the Dunedin Botanic Garden's administration for allowing data collection, and thank Penelope Jacks and Esther Dale for their valuable support during different stages of the fieldwork. EM acknowledges Tamiru Shimales. JM was supported by the Slovak national grant VEGA2/0100/18. AM acknowledges the GAJU n. 04-048/2019/P grant. CCP acknowledges CAPES (financial code 001). MSP and SM thank the Nature Park Medvednica and Ministry of Environment and Energy of the Republic of Croatia for allowing access to the Croatian study sites. KS thanks to ERC 805189. SPR thanks CNPq (306572/2019-2). MKT acknowledges Danielle Courcelles for assistance in field work. CV was supported by Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior (CAPES) Proc. 88882.314749/2019-01. EG was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). MQ was supported by grants from Universidad Nacional Aut?noma de M?xico (PAPIIT IV200418), SADER-CONACYT 291333, CONACYT-UNAM to LANASE (2019-LN299033); MQ thanks Gumersindo Sanchez for help in the field. TT was supported by the Estonian Research Council (grant no. PRG741), and by the Internal Grant Agency of the Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). M-LV was supported by the Estonian Research Council (grant no. PRG741). Funding Information: We acknowledge financial support for research provided by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP: grants 2017/09052‐4, 2018/12225‐0, and 2019/08474‐8) and CNPq‐Brazil through research grants to GQR. GQR and PK gratefully acknowledge funding from the Royal Society, Newton Advanced Fellowship (grant no. NAF/R2/180791). TR was supported by the Academy of Finland (grant 322266); by a senior career support grant from the Vice Chancellor of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 856506; ERC‐synergy project LIFEPLAN); and by a grant from the Jane and Aatos Erkko Foundation. RJM thanks the Missouri Department of Natural Resources for access to Cuivre River State Park, Zhaid Khaja for help in the field, and the Students and Teachers as Research Scientists (STARS) program for financial support. NACM acknowledges CAPES for a post‐doctoral research grant (PNPD/CAPES #2013/0877), VN acknowledges the Czech Science Foundation (grant 19‐28126X). TC acknowledges CNPq (307210/2016‐2) and CAPES. JO acknowledges access to the Paracou research station in French Guiana, which is supported by CIRAD ( https://paracou.cirad.fr/ ) and financial support provided by an Investissement d’Avenir grant of the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (CEBA, ANR‐10‐LABX‐25‐01) and by the PO‐FEDER 2014‐2020, Région Guyane (BiNG, GY0007194). WD and RA are grateful to Rosamond Coates and all the staff of the Estación de Biología Tropical Los Tuxtlas (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México), besides the staff of the Santuario del Bosque de Niebla and Centro de Investigaciones costeras La Mancha (Instituto de Ecología A.C.) who have made the fieldwork possible. HG was supported by an Australian Research Council Future Fellowship (FT130100821). TJI is supported by CNPQ (grants 309552/2018‐4). TK was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). VK acknowledges funding from grant NE/K016148/1 Natural Environment Research Council. MK was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). RM acknowledges Tswalu Kalahari for permission to conduct fieldwork and Bryan Maritz and Graham Alexander for help in the field. PMM acknowledges the Dunedin Botanic Garden's administration for allowing data collection, and thank Penelope Jacks and Esther Dale for their valuable support during different stages of the fieldwork. EM acknowledges Tamiru Shimales. JM was supported by the Slovak national grant VEGA2/0100/18. AM acknowledges the GAJU n. 04‐048/2019/P grant. CCP acknowledges CAPES (financial code 001). MSP and SM thank the Nature Park Medvednica and Ministry of Environment and Energy of the Republic of Croatia for allowing access to the Croatian study sites. KS thanks to ERC 805189. SPR thanks CNPq (306572/2019‐2). MKT acknowledges Danielle Courcelles for assistance in field work. CV was supported by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) Proc. 88882.314749/2019‐01. EG was supported by the Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). MQ was supported by grants from Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (PAPIIT IV200418), SADER‐CONACYT 291333, CONACYT‐UNAM to LANASE (2019‐LN299033); MQ thanks Gumersindo Sanchez for help in the field. TT was supported by the Estonian Research Council (grant no. PRG741), and by the Internal Grant Agency of the Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (grant no. 42900/1312/3166). M‐LV was supported by the Estonian Research Council (grant no. PRG741). Publisher Copyright: © 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

PY - 2022/6

Y1 - 2022/6

KW - climate change

KW - ecosystem engineering

KW - facilitation

KW - insect decline

KW - leaf shelter

KW - microclimatic refuge

KW - predators

U2 - 10.1111/gcb.16150

DO - 10.1111/gcb.16150

M3 - Article

AN - SCOPUS:85126742334

SN - 1354-1013

VL - 28

SP - 3694

EP - 3710

JO - Global Change Biology

JF - Global Change Biology

IS - 11

ER -