Birds of Prey from High-Altitude Cities in Bolivia: Thriving or Surviving in the Face of People and Physiology?

Urbanization is considered the main cause of extinction of species in this century and in the Anthropocene urban regions have shown exponential growth; hence studies of urban ecology are important. Bird ecology studies in cities are relatively recent, biased towards the northern hemisphere and very few refer to high-altitude cities. Consequently, we study the birds of prey from four high-altitude cities (=3871 masl) in Bolivia, emphasizing stressors or environmental conditions and adaptive responses. We analyze trophic aspects, behaviors, inter and intraspecific relationships and the attitudes of the human population to these birds. We review the way in which human perception influences or determines the degree of biophilia and therapeutic and wellness effects. We propose management and conservation strategies in response to our research. We observed raptors along a 650-km transect that included the high-altitude cities (3871 masl) of La Paz, El Alto, Oruro, and Potosí, as well as suburban and rural areas. We also performed pellet analysis. We conducted surveys and interviews to assess the perception of residents. We identified a total of twelve raptor species in the urban-rural gradient of the transect. The frequency and diversity in the gradient in general increased, but at a smaller magnitude than expected. Seven species, in addition to the ethological and ecological adaptations to the usual filters of all cities, show ethological and ecological adaptations to the physical and metabolic conditions inherent to these high-altitude cities. We discuss the regulating, supporting, and cultural environmental services they provide, and the contribution of the domestic pigeon (Columba livia) to the presence of nine raptor species in the studied transect. We propose the enhancement and integration of the natural and cultural history of these birds of prey as a strategy to reverse the negative perception of these species, particularly in rural areas.